A preparation for school leadership: International perspectives. Journal of Educational Administration, 36(1), 828. Leadership and Diversity; Challenging Theory and Practice in Education, Macpherson, R. At the interface with exogenous and endogenous cultures, preparation and development reflect choices which are more than technical. & , McCauley ), Effective educational leadership (pp. (2004). If culture embeds, among other things, power relations, then the issue of programs matching or challenging dominant cultures becomes a matter of negotiating competing notions of appropriate power relations, political and social structures. While awareness of and reflection on hegemonic theory may be of use, its global dominance in preparation and development seems inappropriate on a number of grounds. In the absence of a similarly complex or authoritative study of the cultural factors in educational leadership, the design of much preparation and development seems to adhere to an assumed commonality and to avoid detailed engagement with the culturally contingent (Lumby et al., forthcoming), resulting in an international curriculum for school leadership preparation (Bush & Jackson, 2002, pp. New York: Teachers College Press. Fullan, M. Stoll and Fink (1996) created a typology of five types of school culture: moving (dynamic and successful determination to keep developing), cruising (rather complacent, often with privileged learners who achieve despite little school dynamism), strolling (neither particularly effective or ineffective, but long term not keeping pace with change), struggling (ineffective but trying to address issues), and finally sinking (ineffective and not improving). In Cultural differences can be observed at a range of organizational scales. Published 1996. Certainly it would be helpful to undertake an educational equivalent of the GLOBE project (House et al., 2004) and to establish the education leadership attributes and behaviors that are held in common across a large number of nations and those elements that are culturally contingent. (2006). But the real purpose of schools was, is, and always will be about learning. Women and leadership: The views of women who are . Cultural inputs have many facets these will include the external cultural context (society, community and economy at local, regional and national scales), and the cultures brought to the school by all those engaging with it (teachers, parents, pupils, for example). Understanding Schools as Organisations It is also a response to the greater sensitivity brought about by the increasing diversity within many societies and the insistence that a perspective based on a single dominant culture risks sustaining a hegemonic, ineffective and excluding approach. (2001, October). The first proposes four 'ideal type' school cultures, based on two underlying domains; the second, a more elaborate and dynamic model, proposes two 'ideal type' school cultures, based on five underlying structures. Cultures Consequences, Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations (2nd ed.). Stoll, & Mackay, 2014). Organisational Culture and Leadership. Walker, J. The focus on culture at the macro or societal level is matched by concern with the micro or organizational level, the school level. Crawford , What is the significance of time is the organization most oriented towards the past, the present or the future? In Such an approach to cultural change is, of course, a key component of western approaches to educational leadership, and has been criticized for representing a fundamental misunderstanding of what culture is and can be. Hooijberg, R. 210223). V. Javidan Training and educating principals for such cultural literacy is the focus of later sections in this chapter. (1986). Panel 4 A Typology of School Cultures. Leithwood Bush Salaman (forthcoming). Many leaders are constrained to varying degrees by the pressing demands of accountability and competition which in themselves create a dominant cultural context. Hallinger, P. While there is extensive research on the implications of assessment modes on school learners, including the relationship of assessment to variables such as gender and ethnicity, no similar body of research informs how we understand the assessment of leaders. (forthcoming) distinguish transmission models, where experts pass on theoretical knowledge (often indiscriminately, as discussed earlier), and process models which use more community based styles of learning. Walker, A. Conflict and change. Rather, cultural competency, the ability to recognize, analyze and engage purposefully with culture at the macro and micro levels is a foundational skill, which positions educational leadership as critical contributors to shaping society and not just the school. Curricula and delivery which are founded on a set of cultural assumptions, even those which are dominant within the region or country, are likely to miss the mark for many. For example, being dynamic and dependable, encouraging and displaying integrity were agreed to be positive leader attributes across all the nations involved. School Culture. (Throughout, the term development is used to indicate both pre-appointment preparation and the post-appointment on-going development of leaders.) as aberrations instead of being endemic to organizations (Hoyle & Wallace, 2005, p. 116). An example of the cultural challenges that emerge from this has been described by Hallinger and Kantamara (2001) in the context of Thailand. Creating this culture of change by constantly challenging the status quo is a contact sport involving hard, labor-intensive work and a lot of time. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 12(4), 385408. In P. & Wong, K. , The model identifies seven dimensions of organizational context that shape resultant culture, based on a series of key questions: These questions provide a helpful analytical framework, which can be applied in most educational contexts, and which seeks to identify the underlying values and beliefs within a school. One of the best known divisions was by Stoll and Fink (2000), which distinguishes mobile, . The International Journal of Educational Management, 15(2), 6877. In terms of cultural inputs it is important that leaders within a school have the skills and knowledge to read the cultural landscape of the school, to recognize those aspects of it which can be controlled or manipulated, and decide which should be influenced and in what ways. (1986). Spicing it op: Blending perspectives of leadership and cultural values from Hispanic American and African American women scholars. Deal, T. (2005). Such reculturing (Fullan, 2001) is perhaps the biggest challenge to school leaders, though, for it will certainly generate conflict, contradiction and destabilization as part of the process as DiPaola (2003, p. 153) has indicated: Consequently, a tendency to stereotype or discount alternative cultures must be halted by conscious, persistent effort (Lumby with Coleman, 2007). All this is set within a strongly performative macro context in many countries. Subordinates expect superiors to act autocratically. A. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 4(4), 293296. (Eds. From the approach adopted for teaching and learning, to the cultural values espoused in the pastoral and ethical functions of the school, to the relative value ascribed to possible destinations for pupils beyond school, the fabric of school life will be imbued by these cultural processes. Very many illustrations could be offered of the different expectations and practice of leadership throughout the world. & The paper reviews the literature on 'what works' in school improvement taken from a number of sourcesfrom effective schools studies, from accounts by headteachers who have turned schools around. Homogeneity or diversity is the organization more effective when it is characterized by diversity or homogeneity? Abstract. (1991). Bennett They begin by discussing the historical, social and organizational forces that create continuity in education; which . Hothouse culture exists where the pressure is to high academic achievement, typically in response to government or parental pressure to deliver high quality examination results. There have been strong responses to the lack of critical awareness of these processes. Beyond the school, though, lies a range of contextual cultures extending from the community within which the school lies to regional, national and international cultural contexts. In A more extensive discussion of the variation in culture and practice internationally is offered by Foskett & Lumby (2003) and Lumby et al. For example, culture is suggested to both shape and reflect values (Begley & Wong, 2001), philosophy (Ribbins & Zhang, 2004), gender (Celikten, 2005), religion (Sapre & Ranade, 2001), politics (Hwang, 2001), ethnicity (Bryant, 1998) and history (Wong, 2001). However, such a perspective ignores the ability of schools to select many of the cultural inputs. In relation to leader preparation and development culture has been framed largely as an issue of diffusion, particularly of Western values and practice applied to the development of leaders in all parts of the globe (Leithwood & Duke, 1998). Bjerke, B. (2003). (1998). Clearly in these two instances, Western derived theories of autonomy, planning and change management are all thrown into question. The dynamic culture of Personal or student reference I refer students to this publication for new research articles or for my work, Benefit library's collection Acquisition of this publication will benefit department, faculty and student needs, Affiliation K. (2004). More research of this kind, exploring fit not only to the dominant culture of the nation/region, but also fit to the multiple cultures within the nation or region would provide a potentially powerful antidote to programs which are currently not culturally inclusive. (1991). Similarly, Louque (2002) challenges the appropriateness of the culture embedded in the selection and development of educational leaders to Hispanic and African American Women. (2004). (2007). Gupta & I am a member of the publication's editorial board and strongly support the publication, Authored by: | Cookies Images of Organization, Powell, A. G. Stoll and Fink (1996) created a typology of five types of school culture: moving (dynamic and successful determination to keep developing), cruising (rather complacent, often with privileged learners who achieve despite little school dynamism), strolling (neither particularly effective or ineffective, but long term not keeping pace with change), This may be due in part to the fact that understanding culture and its connection to leadership in education is a poorly researched field. Ribbins, P. The Australian Principals Centre: A model for the accreditation and professional development of the principalship. (2001). Matching culture to preparation and development engages with what is perceived to be universal, what appears to be distinctive to the region or nation or group of people, and what is unique to the individual. The key dimension of cultural scales is that they all exist synchronously, and they all interact upwards and downwards. Culture also impacts on delivery. They suggest the spiritual values embedded in the teaching of Vivekananda, Tagore and Ghandi would provide a more culturally appropriate basis for the leadership of education than the currently Western values which relate in part to the colonial history of the nation. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 321332. In others, variation is considerable and the primary drive to develop teaching and learning, attainment and achievement may be located elsewhere. & This search included empirical studies and theoretical pieces. Story (2001). Sarason (1971, 1996), writing of US schools, was one of the earliest to insist that improving schools was primarily a question of changing culture. In contrast the assessment of educational leaders often assumes that consideration of cultural fit is unnecessary in relation to standards which are uncritically accepted as international. These elements are but the tangible appearance of the underpinning set of values and beliefs, which shape the intended outcomes of the educational enterprise within a school. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (2007). Ribbins International Studies in Educational Administration, 29(2) 3037. Lumby, J. Bryant, M. Lumby et al. The values they espouse or eschew, the aspirations and achievements they have, and their contribution to communities (local, regional, national), whether positive or negative are the cultural product of the school. However, these may be taken-for-granted, and only apparent to those designing and delivering development when a lack of fit is pointed out by specific groups. Educational Management & Administration, Billot, J. Ultimately, it is the cultural product/output of the school by which it will be judged, for it will be benchmarked against the cultural expectations that government, society and community have for their schools. The (racially neutral) politics of education: a critical race Theory perspective. Cincinnati: South Western. Prosser (1998) has shown how culture is expressed at different levels within an organization, ranging from the individual classroom, to teams of teachers, to the whole school. , & Leader and leadership development may therefore be as effectively focused on teacher leaders as on principals in these two countries. The second is that cultural plurality is the norm in many educational systems and within most individual schools and colleges. (1990). & T. (Eds. , 2 C. BELLEI ET AL. Macro Relations: Culture and Globalization, Culture and Leadership Global Perspectives, Preparing Leadership for Cultural Fluency, Culture and Leadership Issues and Future Research, International Handbook on the Preparation and Development of School Leaders, Lumby, Walker, Bryant, Bush & Bjork, forthcoming, House, Paul, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla, Dorfman & Mansour 2004, http://www.thunderbird.edu/wwwfiles/ms/globe/Links/process.pdf, http://www.ucea.org/JRLE/pdf/vol1/issue1/Tippeconic.pdf, http://www.ucea.org/JRLE/pdf/vol1/issue1/Walker.pdf, conceptually, through the ideas that are valued and promoted, verbally, through the language, terminology and discourses in use, behaviorally, through the activities, social interactions and rituals that occur, visually, through the designs and styles adopted by the organization in its physical and material components. , A second early example from the US of a description of a cultural type was the shopping mall school. Hiltrop, J. House His ideas were widely influential. Hanges, S. Javidan A key influence on culture within and beyond schools has been globalization. School culture, school effectiveness and school improvement. Mills E. Despite the difficulties of establishing the meaning of the concept of culture, it is used ubiquitously as a key variable, Janus-like, suggested both to influence and be influenced by a range of factors which impact on education. This paper's focus is school culture as 10. 331360). Accessed online 16.2.07. In an increasingly complex, diverse and unpredictable world, it is necessary for schools and those working with them . Hallinger (2001) also points to the ubiquitous use of theories such as Learning Organization and School Based Management, which are firmly embedded in similar cultural norms. Its view of the nature of human activity does it believe that people behave in a dominant/proactive mode or a passive/fatalistic mode? Once the inputs are understood and the intended outputs identified, the major challenge for the school leader is then to organize and operationalize the processes within the school to enable pupils to travel from their cultural starting point to the output position the school seeks to achieve. And, of course, the selection of principals by governors, education boards or regional/national education authorities is a key mechanism through which the cultural inputs to a school will be strongly controlled. School principals in transition. As a second exemplar, in China the millennia long influence of Confucianism has led to a compliance culture, the impact of this cultural norm being a tendency to see change as an event rather than a process (Hallinger, 2001, p. 67). Consequently mid-forged manacles of Western generated categories hinder the development of leaders in Malaysia where Islam is deeply embedded in culture. Education Leadership Review, 3(2), 2831. Its view of human nature is there a belief that people are essentially good, neutral or evil? (1998). ing the micropolitic and the school culture as key components to study school improvement . The challenge for educational leaders is to recognize and conceptualize each of these cultural realms and understand how it impacts on and provides implications for their own school. A. Bush, T. | Contact us | Help & FAQs School Culture Edited by: Jon Prosser Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd Publication year: 1999 Online pub date: June 19, 2012 Discipline: Education Subject: Social/Philosophical Foundations, School Culture & Climate, Sociology of Education (general) DOI: https:// doi. The processes of globalization have been a significant feature of all dimensions of society and economy over the last three decades. (Eds. . This may be interpreted in several ways ranging from the operational to the political. Here we shall consider three of these perspectives which we believe provide diverse insights reflections on the tangible components of culture and a number of models of those components in action; consideration of the organizational scales at which culture is important in educational contexts; and a systems view of culture which enables the areas of potential management influence of culture in schools to be identified. Sarason, S. The project established 21 common perceived effective leadership attributes and behaviors within the 57 participating nations, providing evidence of widespread assumptions about leadership. Creating this culture of change by constantly challenging the status quo is a contact sport involving hard, labor-intensive work and a lot of time. (2003). London: Penguin. & The challenge for leaders, therefore, is to manage that change in terms of speed, direction or nature to support the organizations goals. School culture refers to a total of shared values expressed through norms, rituals, expectations, behaviour and everyday practices. , Chan, B. ), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 Societies (pp. V. Hoppe asserts that US leaders find difficulty with accepting supportive relationships. As a consequence, leaders must be equipped to work with both imported as well as indigenous culture. Two other approaches might be more desirable ethically and politically. Notwithstanding these different positions, knowledge of how leadership is conceptualized and enacted locally is a sine qua non of successful design. Despite some advances since that time, understanding of culture and its relationship to leadership and its development remains empirically underdeveloped. We would also suggest that pupils, although seldom asked, would hold . In China the relatively low contact hours enjoyed by teachers combined with a culture of comfort with peer critique has resulted in teacher groups working together for a considerable proportion of their time to achieve change (Bush & Qiang, 2000), while principals spend much of their time on operational administration (Washington, 1991). Conflicting expectations, demands and desires. Foskett, N. There have, of course, been many more attempts to categorize school cultures, each offering a particular perspective to illuminate the nature and effects of culture. Buckingham: Open University Press. N. (Eds. Moller, J. He created a series of descriptors of the culture of schooling with a particular focus on how key cultural characteristics equate to the absence of a productive learning environment. In DiPaola, M.F. The Leadership Quarterly, 7(2), 163187. , Washington, K. P.J. ), Strategic Human Resource Management (pp. (1997). The notions of cultural diffusion and cultural fit assume that programs designed to take account of the cultural expectations and preferences of participants are more likely to lead to effective learning and resulting practice. Research has shown the principal to be a significant factor in school effectiveness (Hallinger & Heck, 1999). Develops two "ideal culture" typologies (traditional and collegial) and discusses each for its heuristic, conceptual, methodological, and explanatory potential in school effectiveness and school . The mechanics of diffusion and the appropriateness of the results have been subject to unequal research interest. A more flexible and subtle shaping will be needed. One dimension of fit may relate to ease with receiving positive and negative feedback and from whom. , (2002). At the operational scale, the leader may focus on the culture within the institution in order to facilitate the achievement of institutional improvement, with culture conceptualized as an agent of change.
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